Method for genome complexity reduction and polymorphism detection

ABSTRACT

The present invention provides methods to produce a reduced representation of a genome for sequencing and DNA polymorphism detection. In particular, the invention provides PCR-based methods, with normalization of the amplified products using a duplex-specific nuclease, in order to reduce over-representation of PCR products. Oligonucleotides for use in the disclosed method are also provided.

REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of U.S. provisional application Nos.61/571,472, filed Jun. 27, 2011, and 61/555,711 filed Nov. 4, 2011 andare herein incorporated by reference in its entirety.

INCORPORATION OF SEQUENCE LISTING

The sequence listing that is contained in the file named“UFFL012US_ST25.txt,” which is 7 kilobytes as measured in MicrosoftWindows operating system and was created on Jun. 27, 2012, is filedelectronically herewith and incorporated herein by reference.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates generally to the fields of molecular biology andgenetics. More particularly, the invention relates to DNA sequencing andgenotyping.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Extensive effort has been dedicated to genotyping human, plant, andanimal populations to uncover genetic relationships and to identifygenes that regulate clinical and agricultural traits, among many otheruses. Current methods are costly and rely on large numbers ofindividuals. Technologies are needed to produce a reduced representationof the genome for sequencing and DNA polymorphism detection.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In one aspect, the invention provides methods to produce a reducedrepresentation of a genome for sequencing and DNA polymorphism detectioncomprising the steps of: (a) amplifying regions of a genome bypolymerase chain reaction (PCR) using a first oligonucleotide primer setto produce a first nucleic acid product, wherein one of the primers ofthe first primer set comprises, starting from the 3′ end: (i) a specificsequence at the 3′ end of said primer wherein said specific sequencebinds to unique target regions of said genome; (ii) a sequence thatbinds to all possible sequence combinations in the genome, which may, incertain embodiments, be a degenerate or universal nucleotide sequence;and (iii) a tail sequence that is complementary to a sequence of anoligonucleotide primer used in step (c) of said method; (b) normalizingthe nucleic acid product of step (a) by contacting it with aduplex-specific nuclease for an effective amount of time to digest themost abundant double-stranded nucleic acid of step (a); and (c)amplifying by PCR the normalized nucleic acid product of step (b) usinga second oligonucleotide primer set to produce a second nucleic acidproduct having a linker sequence, wherein a primer of said second primerset comprises, starting from the 5′ end: (i) a linker sequence that isdesigned to support the binding of a DNA molecule to a surface; and (ii)a sequence complementary to said tail sequence of said primer of step(a), and wherein the nucleic acid product of step (c) represents areduced representation of said genome.

In an embodiment of the present invention, the first oligonucleotideprimer comprises a barcode sequence. In another embodiment, the specificsequence of the first oligonucleotide primer comprises between about 5to about 10 nucleotides, and may include about 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10nucleotides. In another embodiment, the specific sequence of the firstoligonucleotide primer comprises 6 nucleotides. In other embodiments ofthe invention, the degenerate sequence of the first oligonucleotideprimer comprises between about 5 to about 15 nucleotides and may includeabout 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, or 15 nucleotides. In stillanother embodiment, the degenerate sequence of the first oligonucleotideprimer comprises 10 nucleotides.

In another embodiment, the invention provides for the use of a universalnucleotide sequence comprising between about 5 to about 15 nucleotidesinstead of degenerate sequences. Other embodiments provide a number ofamplification cycles of PCR between about 15 to about 25 cycles. Inanother embodiment, the duplex-specific nuclease is from kamchatka crab.In still another embodiment, the duplex-specific nuclease is contactedwith nucleic acid product of step (a) for about 2 to about 8 hours. Inanother embodiment, the nucleic acid product of step (c) is sequenced.In another embodiment, reduced representations of multiple genomes areproduced. In still another embodiment, steps (b) and (c) comprisemultiplexing multiple samples.

In another aspect, the invention provides an oligonucleotide primercomprising, starting from the 3′ end: (i) a specific sequence at the 3′end of said primer, wherein said specific sequence binds to uniquetarget regions of a genome; (ii) a sequence that binds to all possiblesequence combinations in the genome, which may, in certain embodiments,be a degenerate or universal nucleotide sequence; and (iii) a tailsequence that is complementary to a sequence of an oligonucleotideprimer used in step (c); or a second oligonucleotide primer, comprising,starting from the 5′ end: (i) a linker sequence designed to support thebinding of a DNA molecule to a surface; and (ii) a sequencecomplementary to the tail sequence of the primer in step (a).

In an embodiment of the present invention, the first oligonucleotideprimer is classified as a barcode sequence. In another embodiment, thespecific sequence of the first oligonucleotide primer comprises betweenabout 5 to about 10 nucleotides, and may include about 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or10 nucleotides. In another embodiment, the specific sequence of thefirst oligonucleotide primer comprises 6 nucleotides. In anotherembodiments of the invention, the degenerate sequence of the firstoligonucleotide primer comprises between about 5 to about 15 nucleotidesand may include about 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, or 15nucleotides. In still another embodiment, the degenerate sequence of thefirst oligonucleotide primer comprises 10 nucleotides. The inventionalso provides for the use of a universal nucleotide sequence comprisingbetween about 5 to about 15 nucleotides instead of degenerate sequences.

The invention also provides methods to produce a reduced representationof a genome for sequencing and DNA polymorphism detection comprising thesteps of: (a) amplifying by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) regions ofsaid genome using a single oligonucleotide primer set, wherein saidoligonucleotide primer set results in the addition of a linker sequence;and (b) normalizing the nucleic acid product of step (a) by contactingit with a duplex-specific nuclease for an effective amount of time todigest the most abundant double-stranded nucleic acid of step (a);wherein the nucleic acid product of said method represents a reducedrepresentation of said genome.

In one embodiment, a primer of the single oligonucleotide primer setcomprises, starting from the 3′ end: (i) a specific sequence that bindsto unique target regions of the genome; (ii) a sequence that binds toall possible sequence combinations in the genome, which may be adegenerate or universal nucleotide sequence; and (iii) a tail sequencecontaining a linker sequence that is designed to support the binding ofa DNA molecule to a surface for sequencing.

In an embodiment of the present invention, the oligonucleotide primercomprises a barcode sequence. In another embodiment, the specificsequence of the oligonucleotide primer comprises between about 5 toabout 10 nucleotides, and may include about 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10nucleotides. In another embodiment, the specific sequence of theoligonucleotide primer comprises 6 nucleotides. In another embodimentsof the invention, the degenerate sequence of the oligonucleotide primercomprises between about 5 to about 15 nucleotides and may include about5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, or 15 nucleotides. In still anotherembodiment, the degenerate sequence of the oligonucleotide primercomprises 10 nucleotides.

The invention also provides for the use of a universal nucleotidesequence comprising between about 5 to about 15 nucleotides instead ofdegenerate sequences. Other embodiments provide a number ofamplification cycles of PCR between about 15 to about 25 cycles. Inanother embodiment, the duplex-specific nuclease is from kamchatka crab.In still another embodiment, the duplex-specific nuclease is contactedwith nucleic acid product of step (a) for about 2 to about 8 hours. Inanother embodiment, the nucleic acid product of step (c) is sequenced.In another embodiment, reduced representations of multiple genomes areproduced. In still another embodiment, steps (b) and (c) comprisemultiplexing multiple samples.

In another aspect, the invention provides a kit comprising in one ormore containers one or more oligonucleotide primers as described herein.In an embodiment, the kit comprises instructions or packaging materialsthat describe how to use the one or more oligonucleotide primers in amethod to produce a reduced representation of a genome. In furtherembodiments, the kit further comprises a duplex-specific nuclease. In astill further embodiment, said duplex-specific nuclease is fromkamchatka crab.

In a further aspect, the invention comprises a method of obtaining agenotype of an individual comprising performing the above two-step PCRmethod and sequencing the second nucleic acid product or performing theabove single PCR method and sequencing the resulting nucleic acidproduct. In another embodiment, the method of obtaining a genotype of anindividual further comprises comparing the genotype of the individual toa reference genotype.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1A: Shows a PCR I oligonucleotide primer composition.

FIG. 1B: Shows a PCR I oligonucleotide primer composition containing asequence barcode.

FIG. 2: Shows PCR I results using oligonucleotide primers with differentnumbers of degenerate nucleotides used in the degenerate sequence. Lanesrepresent PCR I amplification using primers with a degenerate sequenceof 10 (lanes 2-3), 15 (lanes 4-5) and 20 (lanes 6-7) bases. For eachnumber of degenerate bases tested, PCR conditions were as described inExample 6 as condition A (first lane) and condition B (second lane).Lane 1 is a 100-bp ladder.

FIG. 3A: Shows PCR I results using oligonucleotide primers withdifferent number of nucleotides and nucleotide composition in thespecific sequence. PCR conditions are as described in Example 6(condition A). PCR products in lanes 2-9 were amplified byoligonucleotide primers described in Table 1 (lane 2=RAPID1, lane3=RAPID2, lane 4=RAPID3, lane 5=RAPID4, lane 6=RAPID5, lane 7=RAPID6,lane 8=RAPID7, and lane 9=RAPID8). PCR products from lanes 10-17represent amplifications using the same oligonucleotide primers, withoutDNA (negative control). Lane 1 is a 100-bp ladder.

FIG. 3B: Shows PCR I results using oligonucleotide primers withdifferent number of nucleotides and nucleotide composition in thespecific sequence. PCR conditions are as described in Example 6(condition B). PCR products in lanes 2-9 were amplified byoligonucleotide primers described in Table 1 (lane 2=RAPID1, lane3=RAPID2, lane 4=RAPID3, lane 5=RAPID4, lane 6=RAPID5, lane 7=RAPID6,lane 8=RAPID7, and lane 9=RAPID8). PCR products from lanes 10-17represent amplifications using the same oligonucleotide primers, withoutDNA (negative control). Lane 1 is a 100-bp ladder.

FIG. 4: Shows a representation (% of total number of sequencing reads)of each of the 100 most abundant sequences observed (X-axis), aftersamples were treated (light grey) or not treated (dark grey) with theduplex-specific nuclease (DSN) enzyme.

FIG. 5: Shows annealing of the oligonucleotide used in PCR II (SEQ IDNO:1) to the normalized product of PCR I (SEQ ID NO:5).

FIG. 6: Shows linker incorporation during PCR II, measured by qRT-PCR.The incorporation of linkers in the reaction containing genomic DNA(dark grey) increases exponentially after the 3^(rd) cycle. Linkerincorporation in the negative control reaction (light grey) only occurslater (˜10^(th) cycle).

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEQUENCES

SEQ ID NO:1—Shows an example of a linker sequence that can be used forsequencing in an Illumina Genome Analyzer IIx. The linker sequencesupports the binding of the DNA molecule to a flow-cell, bead, or anyother surface to which fragments to be sequenced are anchored.

SEQ ID NO:2—Shows an example of a sequence complementary to thesequencing primer that can be used for sequencing in an Illumina GenomeAnalyzer IIx.

SEQ ID NO:3—Shows the complete sequence of SEQ ID NO:1 and 2.

SEQ ID NO:4—Shows the primer sequence as described in Example 1 (FIG.2).

SEQ ID NO:5—Corresponds to the normalized product of PCR I (FIG. 5).

SEQ ID NO:6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, and 20—correspond to the tailsequence (5′ to 3′) for primer A used in PCR I, for RAPID1-8,respectively.

SEQ ID NO:7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, and 21—correspond to the degeneratesequence plus the specific sequence (5′ to 3′) for primer A used in PCRI, for RAPID1-8, respectively.

SEQ ID NO:22-29—correspond to the sequence (5′ to 3′) for primer B usedin PCR I, for RAPID1-8, respectively.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The invention provides methods and materials to produce a reducedrepresentation of a genome for sequencing and DNA polymorphismdetection. A method of the present invention uses a two-step PCR,intercalated by a normalization step. Methods for performing PCR andsequencing are known in the art. PCR as described herein may compriseadditional reagents or steps to provide optimum amplification. Methodsof optimization of PCR and sequencing are also known and areadditionally described in the examples below. In one embodiment, thefirst PCR begins with the amplification of regions in the genome witholigonucleotide primers that contain a specific sequence in the 3′ end,followed by a degenerate or universal nucleotide sequence, and then atail sequence that is complementary to the oligonucleotide primer usedin the second PCR. Optionally, the oligonucleotide primers can comprisea barcode sequence between the degenerate/universal nucleotide sequenceand the tail sequence. In one embodiment, the specific sequence is about5 to about 10 nucleotides and may include 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10nucleotides, and the degenerate sequence is about 5 to about 15nucleotides, and may include 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, or 15nucleotides. In other embodiments, the specific sequence is 6nucleotides and the degenerate sequence is 10 nucleotides. In anotherembodiment, a universal nucleotide sequence is used, instead of adegenerate oligonucleotide. Before the second PCR is performed,digestion with a duplex-specific nuclease (DSN) may be carried out toreduce representation of overly abundant nucleic acid fragments.Following DSN digestion, a second PCR may be carried out on theDSN-digested nucleic acid. In the second PCR, linkers that allowimmediate sequencing in advanced DNA sequencers are incorporated intothe oligonucleotide primers used in the PCR, resulting in a nucleic acidproduct containing a linker sequence. In one embodiment, theoligonucleotide primers used in the second PCR comprise a linkersequence at the 5′ end that is designed to support binding of nucleicacid to a surface, followed by a sequence that is complementary to thetail sequence of the primers used in the first PCR. Both thenormalization and the second PCR can be done by multiplexing multiplesamples. In one embodiment, sequencing of the amplified nucleic acidproducts is performed following the second PCR.

The invention also provides oligonucleotides that can be used in themethods of the present invention. In one embodiment, an oligonucleotidefor the first PCR may comprise: (a) a specific sequence that binds tounique target regions of the genome being analyzed, (b) a degeneratesequence that binds to all possible sequence combinations in the genome,and (c) a sequence for annealing of a sequencing primer (FIG. 1A). Inaddition, (d) a barcode sequence, which is a sequence defined by theuser for each sample, can optionally be included between (b) and (c) topermit sequencing of multiple samples in parallel and the posteriorseparation of their sequencing data (FIG. 1B). In one embodiment, thespecific sequence is about 5 to about 10 nucleotides and may include 5,6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 nucleotides, and the degenerate sequence is about 5 toabout 15 nucleotides, and may include 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14,or 15 nucleotides. Alternatively, universal bases can replace thedegenerate sequence. Embodiments of oligonucleotides for the first PCRare shown in Table 1.

In an embodiment, an oligonucleotide for the second PCR may comprise:(a) a linker sequence designed to support the binding of the DNAmolecule to a flow-cell, bead, or any other surface to which fragmentsto be sequenced are anchored, such surfaces which are well known in theart, and (b) a sequence complementary to the sequencing primer describedpreviously. In another embodiment, in the case of sequencing in anIIlumina Genome Analyzer IIx, a linker sequence (a) that can be usedcorresponds to: 5′-AATGATACGGCGACCACCGAGATCT-3′ (SEQ ID NO:1), andsequence (b) that can be used is 5′-ACACTCTTTCCCTACACGACGCTCTTCCGATCT-3′(SEQ ID NO:2). Therefore, the complete sequence is:

(SEQ ID NO: 3) 5′-AATGATACGGCGACCACCGAGATCTACACTCTTTCCCTACACGACGCTCTTCCGATCT-3′.

The invention further provides methods and materials to produce areduced representation of a genome for sequencing and DNA polymorphismdetection using a single PCR amplification. The single-PCR methodcomprises the steps of: (a) amplifying by polymerase chain reaction(PCR) regions of said genome using a first oligonucleotide primer set,in which a primer of the oligonucleotide primer set comprises, startingfrom the 3′ end: (i) a specific sequence that binds to unique targetregions of the genome; (ii) a degenerate or universal nucleotidesequence, (iii) a sequence that is designed for annealing of asequencing primer and (iv) a linker sequence that is designed to supportthe binding of a DNA molecule to a surface; and (b) normalizing thenucleic acid product of step (a) by contacting it with a duplex-specificnuclease for an effective amount of time to digest the most abundantdouble-stranded nucleic acid of step (a); wherein the nucleic acidproduct of the method as described herein represents a reducedrepresentation of the genome. This method employs a single PCR in whicha single primer set as this described above is incorporated.

The invention also provides kits comprising in one or more containers,one or more oligonucleotide of the invention. In one embodiment, a kitof the invention includes one or more other components, adjuncts, oradjuvants as described herein. In another embodiment, a kit of theinvention includes instructions or packaging materials that describe howto use an oligonucleotide or component of the invention. Containers ofthe kit can be of any suitable material, e.g., glass, plastic, metal,etc., and of any suitable size, shape, or configuration. In oneembodiment, an oligonucleotide of the invention is provided in the kitas a solid, such as powder or lyophilized form. In another embodiment,an oligonucleotide of the invention is provided in the kit as a liquidor solution.

All patents, patent applications, provisional applications, andpublications referred to or cited herein are incorporated by referencein their entirety, including all figures and tables, to the extent theyare not inconsistent with the explicit teachings of this specification.

Following are examples that illustrate procedures for practicing theinvention. These examples should not be construed as limiting. Allpercentages are by weight and all solvent mixture proportions are byvolume unless otherwise noted.

It should be understood that the examples and embodiments describedherein are for illustrative purposes only and that various modificationsor changes in light thereof will be suggested to persons skilled in theart and are to be included within the spirit and purview of thisapplication and the scope of the appended claims. In addition, anyelements or limitations of any invention or embodiment thereof disclosedherein can be combined with any and/or all other elements or limitations(individually or in any combination) or any other invention orembodiment thereof disclosed herein, and all such combinations arecontemplated with the scope of the invention without limitation thereto.

EXAMPLES Example 1 PCR I—Amplification of Genomic DNA Using a Degenerateor Universal Oligonucleotide Primer

In this example, two PCR steps are utilized (PCR I and PCR II). The aimof PCR I is to amplify a set of regions in the genome that are flankedby specific sequences defined by an oligonucleotide primer. Afteramplification, these regions will represent a reduced representation ofthe genome, to which linkers are added in PCR II, followed by sequencingand polymorphism genotyping.

The first step of reducing the genome complexity occurs through PCRamplification using an oligonucleotide primer. The oligonucleotideprimers contain three components, starting from the 3′ end: (a) aspecific sequence that binds to unique target regions of the genome; (b)a degenerate or universal sequence that binds to all possible sequencecombinations in the genome; and (c) a tail sequence for annealing of asequencing primer (referred to as a sequencing primer sequence orsequencing primer in FIGS. 1A and B) (FIG. 1A). In addition, (d) abarcode sequence can be included between (b) and (c) to permitsequencing of multiple samples in parallel and the posterior separationof their sequencing data (FIG. 1B).

The specific sequence (a) defines the starting positions in the genome,from where amplification by the DNA polymerase will occur. Selection ofthe specific sequence (a) depends on both the number of fragments thatone desires to sample in the genome and their distribution. For example,selection of a specific sequence with 6 nucleotides (nt) typicallyyields a larger number of fragments than a specific sequence with 10 nt,which is likely anneal to the genome less frequently (see Example 2).Certain sequences are also likely to amplify fragments that are moreconsistently distributed in the genome than others. Therefore, if areference genome is available for the organism of interest, thisdistribution can be estimated to guide the selection of the mostappropriate specific sequence.

Of note, two or more degenerate oligonucleotides that differ only intheir specific sequence may be used in combination in a single PCR,providing more flexibility in the regions of the genome that will beamplified. To demonstrate this, one degenerate oligonucleotide primerwas synthesized with the sequence 5′-CTCGCC-3′ (FIG. 2) and anothersynthesized with the sequence 5′-GCCGCC-3′. This combination of primersamplified approximately 30,000 regions of the Eucalyptus grandis genomein a range of 200-600 base pairs, based on predicted and observed numberof fragments generated after PCR amplification and sequencing.

The degenerate or universal sequence (b) provides stability to theoligonucleotide primer when it anneals to the genome during PCR,potentially allowing the use of more stringent PCR conditions and thuslimiting non-specific amplification. Different numbers of degeneratebases (10, 15, and 20) in the degenerate sequence were tested (seeExample 2). Alternatively, universal bases may be used instead ofdegenerate bases. FIG. 2 shows a degenerate sequence containing 10degenerate nt.

The sequencing primer sequence (c) is defined by the user, depending onthe primer used for initiation of DNA polymerization in the sequencingreaction. In the example provided (FIG. 2), the primer sequence isdefined by the sequence 5′-ACACGACGCTCTTCCGATCT-3′ (SEQ ID NO:4).

A barcode sequence (d) is defined by the user, depending on the numberof samples that one wishes to multiplex during sequencing. In theexample provided (FIG. 2), the barcode sequence is defined by thesequence 5′-ACTG-3′.

Unless described differently below, the reaction conditions for PCR Iwere as follows: 60 ng of genomic DNA, 0.2 mM dNTPs, 2 units of Taq DNApolymerase (Platinum DNA Polymerase High-fidelity), 0.5 μM of theoligonucleotide primer, and 3 μM of the 10×DNA polymerase buffer, in a30 μL reaction.

Example 2 Optimization of Oligonucleotide Primer Properties for PCR I

The oligonucleotide primer properties that were defined are (a) thenumber of degenerate (N) bases to be used in the degenerate sequence and(b) the number and type (i.e., A, C, G, or T) of bases to be used in thespecific sequence.

Number of Bases in the Degenerate Sequence.

As each additional degenerate base is added to the oligonucleotideprimer, the concentration for a given primer composition decreases by ¼relative to the total primer concentration (assuming that eachnucleotide—A, C, G and T—is added in an equimolar amount in thedegenerate position). Therefore, PCR amplification is expected todecrease as additional degenerated bases are added, as fewer primerswill be available to amplify a given product. We tested PCRamplification using 10, 15, and 20 degenerate bases using standard PCRconditions (see below). The primers tested are described in Table 1. Asanticipated, a significant decrease in the amount of product synthesizedin the PCR I was observed when a higher number of degenerate bases wereutilized (FIG. 2). While both PCR conditions described below (seeExample 3) produce clear amplification results when 10 degenerate basesare used, amplification is less pronounced with 15, and absent with 20degenerate bases. In order to support further optimization of PCR I,regardless of cycle annealing and extension condition, we selected 10 asthe maximum number of degenerate bases to be included in the degeneratesequence.

Composition of the Bases in the Degenerate Sequence.

Alternatively, instead of synthesizing a degenerate sequence containingone of the four bases in a proportion of ¼ at any position, a universalbase may be used (e.g., inosine) which binds to any nucleotide in allpositions.

Number and Type (i.e., A, C, G, or T) of Bases to be Used in theSpecific Sequence.

In order to evaluate the impact of using different number of nucleotidesand composition in the amplification of genomic products, we tested theuse of 6, 7, and 8 nucleotides in the specific sequence of theoligonucleotide primer. The primers tested are described in Table 1.Overall, the use of 7 and 8 nucleotides lead to a reduction in productcomplexity, recognized by the observation of discrete bands in agarosegel (FIG. 3). On the contrary, the use of oligonucleotide primers withonly 6 nucleotides is sufficiently complex to generate a smear, with noclearly visible banding pattern. Therefore, to limit theover-amplification of few unique products, we selected the use ofprimers with 6 nucleotides in the specific sequence.

The amplification profile depends on the specific sequence of theoligonucleotide primer, as well as the genome complexity andcomposition. Therefore, the selection of oligonucleotide primers has tobe determined for each targeted species.

TABLE 1 PCR I oligonucleotide primers of different lengths and nucleotide composition used inthe specific sequence (N =degenerate nucleotide). Primer combinations RAPID1-8 of PrimerA comprise a barcode sequence between the tail sequence and the degenerate sequence +specific sequence. Sequence (5′-3′) Primer A Sequence (5′-3′) Primer BSEQ SEQ SEQ Primer ID Degenerate Sequence + ID ID CombinationTail Sequence NO: Specific Sequence NO: Primer NO: RAPID1ACACGACGCTCTTCCG 6 NNNNNNNNNNGCGAGG 7 CTGAACCCTTGTCGCCATTCNNNNNNNNNNCCTC22 ATCT CG RAPID2 ACACGACGCTCTTCCG 8 NNNNNNNNNNCTCGCC 9CTGAACCCTTGTCGCCATTCNNNNNNNNNNGCC 23 ATCT GCC RAPID3 GACGCTCTTCCGATCT 10NNNNNNTATGCATG 11 ACCCTTGTCGCCATTCGATANNNNNNTCATCATG 24 RAPID4GACGCTCTTCCGATCT 12 NNNNNNGCCTCGCC 13 ACCCTTGTCGCCATTCGATANNNNNNTTTGTTCC25 RAPID5 GACGCTCTTCCGATCT 14 NNNNNNATGCATG 15ACCCTTGTCGCCATTCGATANNNNNNCATCATG 26 RAPID6 GACGCTCTTCCGATCT 16NNNNNNCCTCGCC 17 ACCCTTGTCGCCATTCGATANNNNNNGCCTCGC 27 RAPID7GACGCTCTTCCGATCT 18 NNNNNNCCTCGCC 19 ACCCTTGTCGCCATTCGATANNNNNNTTGTTCC28 RAPID8 GACGCTCTTCCGATCT 20 NNNNNNGCCTCGC 21ACCCTTGTCGCCATTCGATANNNNNNTTGTTCC 29

Example 3 Optimization of PCR Cycle Annealing and Extension Conditionsfor PCR I

Two alternative strategies were tested regarding the PCR annealing andextension conditions in PCR I. Condition A involved a PCR profileconsisting of 30 cycles of 94° C. for 2 min, 45° C. for 1 min, and 68°C. for 0.5 min, and a final step at 68° C. for 5 min. Alternatively,condition B was used, consisting of 94° C. for 2 min, followed by 5cycles of 94° C. for 2 min, 45° C. for 1 min, ramp 2 min to 68° C., and68° C. for 0.5 min; then 25 cycles of 94° C. for 2 min, 62° C. for 1min, and 68° C. for 0.5 min, and a final step at 68° C. for 5 min.

Example 4 Optimization of Number of PCR Cycles for PCR I

Methods aimed at PCR amplifying large numbers of regions in the genomefor sequencing and genotyping have previously been proposed, but arehampered by over-amplification of few specific targets in the genome(Jordan et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 99:2942-2947, 2002). As aresult, there is an over-representation of a subset of genomic regionsamong sequencing reads, and the lack of representation of others. Thisover-amplification is exacerbated by increasing the number of PCRcycles, because fragment amplification by PCR increases exponentiallywith each additional cycle. Therefore, in PCR I, we favor using thelowest possible number of cycles in order to minimize theover-amplification of specific regions of the genome. To determine theadequate number of PCR cycles for each set of primers used in PCR I, thesynthesis of products generated at each cycle was followed, usingquantitative RT-PCR (FIG. 4). The exponential amplification at 15-25cycles was observed, depending on the primer combination used in PCR I.Note that the number of cycles has to be determined for each primercombination used in PCR I.

Example 5 Normalization of PCR Products

Regardless of the protocol adopted in PCR I, the over-representation ofcertain regions of the genome among sequencing reads can only beminimized by manipulating the reaction conditions (particularly, thenumber of PCR cycles), but not entirely eliminated. Therefore,alternative approaches that reduce amplification bias are critical forthe feasibility of genotyping by sequencing products derived from PCR I.The present invention is innovative over the art, for instance, in theintroduction of a normalization step using a duplex-specific nuclease(DSN), aimed at minimizing the over-representation of specific fragmentsamong sequencing reads. The normalization step involves the denaturationof PCR I products, and their subsequent renaturation, followed bydegradation of the most abundant double-stranded DNA fraction by aduplex-specific nuclease (DSN). In order to evaluate the effect of a DSNtreatment in reducing over-representation of products among sequencedfragments, we carried out PCR I with the conditions described below.Briefly, 60 ng of genomic DNA were combined with the 0.2 mM dNTPs, 2units of Taq DNA polymerase (Platinum DNA Polymerase High-fidelity), 0.5μM of the oligonucleotide primer, and 3 μM of the 10×DNA polymerasebuffer, in a 30 ΣL reaction. The PCR profile consisted of 94° C. for 2min, followed by 5 cycles of 94° C. for 2 min, 45° C. for 1 min, ramp 2min to 68° C., and 68° C. for 0.5 min; then 18 cycles of 94° C. for 2min, 62° C. for 1 min, and 68° C. for 0.5 min, and a final step at 68°C. for 5 min. PCR products were then purified and eluted in 10 uL usingstandard procedures (Qiagen Mini-Elute column). Next, 3 μL of eachpurified PCR product were (1) used in PCR II (described below), or (2)treated with DSN prior to amplification in PCR II. For DSN treatment,the enzyme isolated from the kamchatka crab (Duplex-specific nuclease,Evrogen) was used, which exhibits a strong preference fordouble-stranded DNA as a substrate and is stable under elevatedtemperatures (Shagin et al., Genome Res. 12:1935-42, 2002). PCR Iproducts were incubated for 5 hrs with ⅛ of a unit of DSN, following themanufacturer's protocol (Evrogen, Moscow, Russia). Normalized PCRproducts were then used in PCR II (protocol described below) andsequenced. After sequencing, the frequency of each of the 100 mostcommon reads was compared to non-normalized products, to evaluatesuccess of the procedure. As shown in FIG. 4, DSN enzyme treatmentclearly reduced the representation of fragments that were overlyabundant following PCR I. For this analysis, in which we used the RAPID2primer combination (Table 1), lack of enzyme treatment results in 53% ofsequencing reads being composed of the 100 most abundant fragments. WithDSN treatment, the most common 100 sequences represented only 15% of thetotal reads. The most abundant fragment represented over 7% of thesequencing reads in the original conditions (i.e., no enzyme treatment),but was <1% after use of DSN (FIG. 4). Therefore, treatment of PCR Iproducts with a duplex-specific nuclease is critical for reducing theover-representation of few PCR products among sequencing reads.

Example 6 PCR II—Incorporation of Linker Sequences

The present invention is further novel over the art by the introductionof a second PCR (PCR II) aimed at producing a reduced representation ofthe genome that is rapidly and cost-effectively prepared, and suitablefor sequencing. Previously published methodologies have utilized similarapproaches as the one described in Examples 1-5. for generating areduced representation of the genome. In one study, Jordan et al. (Natl.Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 99:2942-2947, 2002) generated reduced representationsof the genome using an oligonucleotide primer containing a specificsequence in the 3′ end, followed by degenerate nucleotides, and asequence “tail” containing a restriction site. After PCR amplification,enzyme digestion of the restriction site was carried out, followed byligation and cloning in E. coli. Cloned plasmids from transformed cellswere then extracted and purified for sequencing. The approach introducedhere eliminates the cloning step, so that in one simple PCR, samples areready for sequencing. The procedure also avoids costly andtime-consuming methods of library construction, typically required forpreparation of samples for second-generation sequencing. Because reducedgenome representations of each individual may be identified by a uniquebarcode introduced during the PCR I, multiple samples can be combined ina single PCR II, further lowering costs and increasing throughput ofthis approach.

Following PCR I and the normalization of PCR products, fragments can besequenced in a variety of sequencing platforms. However, prior tosequencing, specific linker sequences are added to each end of themolecules. Such linker sequences are used for analysis insecond-generation sequencers and are dependent on the sequencerplatform. Generally, linker sequences have been added to reducedrepresentations of the genome by restriction digestion, and ligation ofadaptors containing the suitable sequence (Jordan et al., Natl. Acad.Sci. U.S.A., 99:2942-2947, 2002). The process is simplified by theintroduction of PCR II, where linkers are introduced by extension fromoverhanging primers. Essentially, PCR amplification occurs using anoligonucleotide primer that contains two components, starting from the5′ end: (a) a linker sequence designed to support the binding of the DNAmolecule to a flow-cell, bead, or any other surface to which fragmentsto be sequenced are anchored, and (b) a sequence complementary to thesequencing primer described previously. In the case of sequencing in anIIlumina Genome Analyzer IIx, linker sequence (a) corresponds to:5′-AATGATACGGCGACCACCGAGATCT-3′ (SEQ ID NO:1), and sequence (b) is5′-ACACTCTTTCCCTACACGACGCTCTTCCGATCT-3′(SEQ ID NO:2). Therefore, thecomplete sequence is:

(SEQ ID NO: 3) 5′-AATGATACGGCGACCACCGAGATCTACACTCTTTCCCTACACGACGCTCTTCCGATCT-3′.This primer anneals as described in FIG. 5 to the degenerateoligonucleotide primer used in PCR I.

The PCR conditions for incorporation of the linker sequence in PCR IIwere optimized to maximize the synthesis of products adequate for use insequencing platforms (i.e., containing the linker), while minimizing thenumber of cycles required. Once again, the purpose of minimizing thenumber of cycles was to reduce the over-amplification of certainproducts favorably amplified in PCR I. In addition, dimers formed by thedegenerate oligonucleotide primers used in PCR I are most likely to beamplified in PCR II because of their small size. Therefore, conditionsthat minimize their amplification are also critical.

PCR II included 0.2 mM dNTPs, 1 unit of Taq DNA polymerase (Platinum DNAPolymerase High-fidelity), 0.1 μM of the primer, and 5 μM of the 10×DNApolymerase buffer, in a 50 μL reaction. Ten microliters of purifiedproduct from PCR I were used in PCR II. The PCR profile consisted of 94°C. for 3 min, followed by cycles of 94° C. for 2 min, 57° C. for 0.5min, and 68° C. for 1 min, and a final step at 68° C. for 10 min. Thenumber of cycles was defined as described below.

Example 7 Optimization of Number of PCR Cycles for PCR II

To evaluate the minimal number of cycles that are necessary forincorporation of adapters in PCR II, the synthesis of products wasquantified by qRT-PCR, using the primer described in FIG. 5, and thereaction conditions described above. The qRT-PCR profile was alsogenerated using a control reaction, to quantify the generation of primerdimers. The results indicate that 5-7 cycles adequately produce productscontaining the linker sequence while minimizing the generation ofdimers. As the number of cycles increased, the quantity of dimers formedbecomes significant and undesirable (FIG. 6). Analysis of sequencingdata indicated that fewer than 1% of sequencing reads were derived fromdimers.

Example 8 Production of a Reduced Representation of a Genome in a SinglePCR

In this example, a single PCR would be utilized for production of areduced representation of a genome. Using a single PCR would enablesimultaneous amplification of a set of regions in the genome that areflanked by specific sequences defined by an oligonucleotide primer andattachment of linkers for DNA sequencing reactions. The oligonucleotideprimers used in the single-PCR method would comprise one primer set,which would contain four components, starting from the 3′ end: (a) aspecific sequence that binds to unique target regions of the genome; (b)a degenerate or universal sequence that binds to all possible sequencecombinations in the genome; (c) a sequence for annealing of a sequencingprimer; and (d) a linker sequence that is designed to support thebinding of a DNA molecule to a surface. In addition, (e) a barcodesequence can be included between (b) and (c) to permit sequencing ofmultiple samples in parallel and the posterior separation of theirsequencing data.

Reaction conditions used for the single-PCR method would be as follows:60 ng of genomic DNA, 0.2 mM dNTPs, 2 units of Taq DNA polymerase(Platinum DNA Polymerase High-fidelity), 0.5 μM of the oligonucleotideprimer, and 3 μM of the 10×DNA polymerase buffer, in a 30 μL reaction.However, one of skill would recognize that these conditions would beable to be optimized, as well known in the art and described above toobtain the most efficient reaction, for instance limiting theover-amplification of a few specific targets while increasing theamplification of remaining sequences. After amplification the PCRproduct would then be contacted with DSN to normalize the amplificationproduct. PCR product from the single-PCR reaction may then be sequencedor genotyped by known methods.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method for producing a reduced representationof a genome, comprising the steps of: (a) amplifying by polymerase chainreaction (PCR) regions of the genome using a first oligonucleotideprimer set to produce a first nucleic acid product; (b) normalizing thenucleic acid product of step (a) by contacting it with a duplex-specificnuclease for an effective amount of time to digest the most abundantdouble-stranded nucleic acid product of step (a); and (c) amplifying byPCR the normalized nucleic acid product of step (b) using a secondoligonucleotide primer set to produce a second nucleic acid producthaving a linker sequence, wherein the nucleic acid product of step (c)represents a reduced representation of the genome.
 2. The method ofclaim 1, wherein (A) a primer of the first primer set comprises,starting from the 3′ end: (i) a specific sequence that binds to uniquetarget regions of the genome; (ii) a sequence that binds to all possiblesequence combinations in the genome; and (iii) a tail sequence; and (B)a primer of the second primer set comprises, starting from the 5′ end:(i) a linker sequence that is designed to support the binding of a DNAmolecule to a surface; and (ii) a sequence complementary to the tailsequence of the primer of step (A).
 3. The method of claim 2, whereinsaid primer of said first oligonucleotide primer set further comprises abarcode sequence.
 4. The method of claim 2, wherein said specificsequence of the primer of the first oligonucleotide primer set comprisesbetween about 5 to about 10 nucleotides.
 5. The method of claim 4,wherein said specific sequence comprises 6 nucleotides.
 6. The method ofclaim 2, wherein the sequence that binds to all possible sequencecombinations in the genome is a degenerate sequence.
 7. The method ofclaim 6, wherein said degenerate sequence comprises between about 5 toabout 15 nucleotides.
 8. The method of claim 7, wherein the degeneratesequence comprises 10 nucleotides.
 9. The method of claim 2, wherein thesequence that binds to all possible sequence combinations in the genomeis a universal nucleotide sequence.
 10. The method of claim 9, whereinthe universal nucleotide sequence comprises between about 5 to about 15nucleotides.
 11. The method of claim 1, wherein the number ofamplification cycles of PCR in step (a) is between about 15 to about 25.12. The method of claim 1, wherein said duplex-specific nuclease is fromkamchatka crab.
 13. The method of claim 1, wherein the contacting ofstep (b) is for about 2 to about 8 hours.
 14. The method of claim 1,further comprising sequencing the second nucleic acid product of step(c).
 15. The method of claim 1, wherein reduced representations ofmultiple genomes are produced.
 16. The method of claim 1, wherein steps(b) and (c) comprise multiplexing multiple samples.
 17. Anoligonucleotide primer, wherein the oligonucleotide primer comprises:(a) starting from the 3′ end: (i) a specific sequence that binds tounique target regions of a genome; (ii) a sequence that binds to allpossible sequence combinations in the genome; and (iii) a tail sequence;or (b) starting from the 5′ end: (i) a linker sequence that is designedto support the binding of a DNA molecule to a surface; and (ii) asequence complementary to the tail sequence of the primer of step (A) ofclaim
 2. 18. The oligonucleotide primer of claim 17, wherein theoligonucleotide primer of (a) further comprises a barcode sequence. 19.The oligonucleotide primer of claim 17, wherein the specific sequence ofthe oligonucleotide primer of (a) comprises between about 5 to about 10nucleotides.
 20. The oligonucleotide primer of claim 19, wherein thespecific sequence comprises 6 nucleotides.
 21. The oligonucleotideprimer of claim 17, wherein the sequence that binds to all possiblesequence combinations in the genome is a degenerate sequence
 22. Theoligonucleotide primer of claim 21, wherein the degenerate sequencecomprises between about 5 to about 15 nucleotides.
 23. Theoligonucleotide primer of claim 22, wherein the degenerate sequencecomprises 10 nucleotides.
 24. The oligonucleotide primer of claim 17,wherein the sequence that binds to all possible sequence combinations inthe genome is a universal nucleotide sequence.
 25. The oligonucleotideprimer of claim 24, wherein the universal nucleotide sequence comprisesbetween about 5 to about 15 nucleotides.
 26. A method for producing areduced representation of a genome, comprising the steps of: (a)amplifying by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) regions of said genomeusing a single oligonucleotide primer set, wherein said oligonucleotideprimer set results in the addition of a linker sequence; and (b)normalizing the nucleic acid product of step (a) by contacting it with aduplex-specific nuclease for an effective amount of time to digest themost abundant double-stranded nucleic acid of step (a); wherein thenucleic acid product of said method represents a reduced representationof said genome.
 27. The method of claim 26, wherein a primer of theoligonucleotide primer set comprises, starting from the 3′ end: (i) aspecific sequence that binds to unique target regions of the genome;(ii) a sequence that binds to all possible sequence combinations in thegenome; and (iii) a tail sequence containing a linker sequence that isdesigned to support the binding of a DNA molecule to a surface forsequencing
 28. The method of claim 27, wherein said primer of saidoligonucleotide primer set further comprises a barcode sequence.
 29. Themethod of claim 27, wherein said specific sequence of the primer of theoligonucleotide primer set comprises between about 5 to about 10nucleotides.
 30. The method of claim 29, wherein said specific sequencecomprises 6 nucleotides.
 31. The method of claim 27, wherein thesequence that binds to all possible sequence combinations in the genomeis a degenerate sequence.
 32. The method of claim 31, wherein saiddegenerate sequence comprises between about 5 to about 15 nucleotides.33. The method of claim 32, wherein the degenerate sequence comprises 10nucleotides.
 34. The method of claim 27, wherein the sequence that bindsto all possible sequence combinations in the genome is a universalnucleotide sequence.
 35. The method of claim 34, wherein the universalnucleotide sequence comprises between about 5 to about 15 nucleotides.36. The method of claim 26, wherein the number of amplification cyclesof PCR in step (a) is between about 15 to about
 25. 37. The method ofclaim 26, wherein said duplex-specific nuclease is from kamchatka crab.38. The method of claim 26, wherein the contacting of step (b) is forabout 2 to about 8 hours.
 39. The method of claim 26, further comprisingsequencing a resulting nucleic acid product.
 40. The method of claim 26,wherein reduced representations of multiple genomes are produced. 41.The method of claim 26, wherein steps (b) and (c) comprise multiplexingmultiple samples.
 42. A kit comprising in one or more containers one ormore oligonucleotide primers of claim
 17. 43. The kit of claim 42,wherein said kit comprises instructions or packaging materials thatdescribe how to use the one or more oligonucleotide primers in a methodto produce a reduced representation of a genome.
 44. The kit of claim42, wherein said kit further comprises a duplex-specific nuclease. 45.The kit of claim 42, wherein said duplex-specific nuclease is fromkamchatka crab.
 46. A method of obtaining a genotype of an individualcomprising performing the method of claim 1 and sequencing the secondnucleic acid product.
 47. The method of claim 46, further comprisingcomparing the genotype of the individual to a reference genotype.
 48. Amethod of obtaining a genotype of an individual comprising performingthe method of claim 26 and sequencing the resulting nucleic acidproduct.
 49. The method of claim 48, further comprising comparing thegenotype of the individual to a reference genotype.